Tag: Y-DNA

Establishing accurate family histories requires the careful evaluation of multiple sources of information to document facts and to reach reliable conclusions. This story touches on the general methods in the field of genealogy for examining evidence. I provide a few practical examples and a simple approach from my research to make these general guidelines come to life.

“The process of genealogical research seeks information (facts about events) to answer questions (research objectives) about people. The records searched are the source of the information; therefore you must evaluate both the information you found and the record(s) in which you found it. When considering the record, evaluate its relevance, category, and format.

“When considering the information, compare it and corroborate it with information you have found in other independent sources … . Also, evaluate the information itself on its own merits taking into consideration: origin of the information, facts given in the records, events described, and directness of the evidence. ” [1]

Long before the concept of “alternative facts” entered the lexicon of modern everyday life [2], the American rock band, Talking Heads, explored the idea in a song “Crosseyed And Painless,” [3] which is written from the perspective of a someone that is not certain of what is real.

For such a small four letter word, there are many meanings of the word ‘fact‘. The term takes on different shades of meaning depending on its use. It has different, nuanced meanings in philosophical, scientific, historical, mathematical, legal and genealogical perspectives. Perhaps in ‘common’ language, a fact is something that is known to have happened or to exist, especially something for which some form of proof exists, or about which there is information.

From a ‘genealogist’s‘ point of view, it is safe to state that a fact is information associated with or about an individual family member, family, family object, property or action that is purported to be true.

Genealogical Facts and Evidence

These ‘facts’ or ‘events’ may be about a photo, an event, a period of time, a specific person, a couple, siblings, a branch of the family, or set of families. A genealogical story could be based on a multitude of possible organizing facts that define the boundary of a given story. That is the beauty of telling a story. Unless you are writing pure fiction, you need some facts that are reliable and can be documented.

Genealogical evidence is information used to document family relationships, life events, and historical facts about ancestors. It consists of evidence found in historical information (records, documents, and other sources) that help establish genealogical conclusions.

‘Evidence’ like ‘fact’ is also a word that has many meanings and interpretations. However, one might simply state that “evidence is an ‘assembly’ of facts indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or false”. [5]

Evidence is always gathered and presented either in support of or in opposition to an assertion about facts we have of an individual family member, family, a family object, property or action. When considering evidence, the most important aspect is whether the facts are relevant to the statement being examined. Facts in themselves have no purpose or agenda associated with them. [6]

For a genealogist, a fact is or facts are information used as evidence for substantiating the truthfulness of a something. Edward Hallett Carr, a British historian argued that ‘facts do not speak for themselves’. He argued that the historian can pick and decide which facts deserved to be shown, the order they are shown, and their context. Since the past is itself filled with facts, these facts are sifted, interpreted and analyzed for their relevance and value. [7]

(Facts) … “are like fish swimming about in a vast and sometimes inaccessible ocean; and what the historian catches will depend, partly on chance, but mainly on what part of the ocean he chooses to fish in and what tackle he chooses to use – these two factors being, of course, determined by the kind of fish he wants to catch. By and large, the historian will get the kind of facts he wants. History means interpretation.” [8]

Adapting Carr’s view on what is history and the role of the historian to the field of genealogy, genealogists are engaged in a continuous process of moulding their facts to their interpretation and their interpretation to facts. [9]

Genealogical facts never come to us or exist in a pure form. Genealogical facts are rarely ‘complete and unbiased’ to tell us something relevant to understanding the past. They usually need some corroboration from other sources. Facts do not care about our intended goals for their use, nor are they interested in our story.

“The reliability of any historical statement depends upon the perception of the participant who first reported or recorded it. The reliability of a genealogical conclusion, in turn, rests not just upon the accuracy of the original informant(s) but also upon the researcher’s understanding of what the informant(s) meant to say, as well as the researcher’s judgment in a number of other matters: the choice of sources, the thoroughness of the investigation, the analysis of information, the correlation of details, and the conclusions drawn—for starters.” [10]

Evidence always considers relevance. Evidence is a selected subset of all available facts chosen because they are deemed relevant to determining the validity of a genealogical assertion, similar to the fish simile in the Carr’s quote above.

Therein lies the rub. Who determines which facts are considered relevant? Who determines what evidence to use? What is the concluding assertion?

“No technique can be said to constitute the gold standard because there is no gold standard. … The common assertion of a gold standard of evidence is merely a rhetorical device. … The hard truth is that we have little choice but to adapt in creative ways to the kinds of evidence that social scientists confront.” [11]

“Revised” Birth Date of Rose Sperber [12]

I have found military records that misspell a great-great grand-uncle’s surname that died in a Confederate prison. [13] I have found family records that were ‘revised’ to hide an unwed birth. [14] I have found many sources that provide multiple ways in which my surname has been spelled for Griffis relatives. [15] The list goes on. All of these require alternative sources of facts to corroborate or refine evidence for statements about a genealogical fact.

The accuracy of any source is unknown until the one has accumulated enough evidence for ‘tests of correlation‘ —the comparison and contrasting of sources and information to reveal points or degrees of agreement. [16]

Evaluating Evidence in the Context of the Genealogical Proof Standard

The Genealogical Proof Standard (GPS) is a guideline established by the Board for Certification of Genealogists for determining the reliability of genealogical conclusions with reasonable certainty. Evaluating genealogical evidence is two of the five parts of the overall genealogical proof process: analysis and resolution. [17]

The Genealogical Proof Standard: Highlighting the Analysis & Resolution Stages

The GPS serves as a benchmark for quality in genealogical research, helping both professional and amateur genealogists maintain credibility in their work. The GPS consists of five essential elements or standards:

1. Reasonably Exhaustive Research: Research should be systematic and broad in scope; and all relevant and available records should be identified and searched.

2. Complete and Accurate Source Citations: Each statement of fact requires proper documentation; and sources should be thoroughly documented for verification.

3. Analysis and Correlation of Information: Evidence should be analyzed, interpreted and correlated; and information from multiple sources must be compared and evaluated.

4. Resolution of Conflicting Evidence: Contradictory evidence should be addressed and resolved. Researchers should not ignore evidence that disagrees with their conclusions.

5. Soundly Reasoned Conclusion: Conclusions should be coherently written. Arguments or narratives should be based on the strongest evidence.

There is a wide range of written discourse on the “how to’s” of conducting genealogy research and assessing facts, evidence and their respective sources. Many of these written resources are highly informative and provide excellent ‘tips of the trade’. [18]

Many of these sources on conducting genealogical research start with distinguishing between primary and secondary sources of facts or evidence. Primary sources of information about facts or events are original, first-hand accounts of an event or time period. Secondary sources are interpretations and analyses of primary sources by someone other than the original author. [19]

The distinction between primary and secondary sources can vary depending on the context and the type of research being conducted. It is possible that some sources can function as both primary and secondary sources, depending on the research question and the interpretation of the researcher.

The distinction of primary, secondary or derivative sources of information are often times overlapping. Any source can offer both primary and secondary information. Original sources can also contain secondary information. Derivative sources of information can include primary information. The ambiguity of these categories of sources of information has led the governing body of accreditation for professional genealogists to avoid the use of the terms of primary and secondary sources. [20]

Evidence Analysis Process

In the late 1990’s, Elizabeth Shown Mills provided an ‘Evidence Analysis Process Map’ (EAP). The conceptual ‘map’ is a framework for evaluating genealogical information that follows a clear progression: sources provide information from which we select evidence for analysis, leading to sound conclusions that may be considered proof.

“Fulfilling a long-overdue need, a specific standard of proof has been crafted to cover the distinctive concerns of genealogical research. Terminology has been refined to eliminate conflicts between genealogical applications and usage common elsewhere.“ [21]

The Evidence Analysis Process (EAP) and the Genealogical Proof Standard (GPS) work together as complementary frameworks in genealogical research, with the Evidence Analysis Process supporting the achievement of GPS requirements. The EAP supports GPS’s requirement for soundly reasoned conclusions by providing a clear framework for: analyzing evidence strength, evaluating source reliability and assessing information quality.

The Evidence Analysis Process directly supports the third element of GPS by providing a structured method for analyzing and correlating collected information. The Evidence Analysis Process strengthens the fourth GPS element by providing a methodical way to evaluate and resolve contradictory evidence. Through careful source evaluation and information analysis, researchers can better address conflicting information.

There were a few modifications to the EAP map since 1999. [22] Presently the EAP map outlines three sources of information, three types of information and three types of evidence. [23]

The Evidence Analysis Process Map (EAP)

The EAP is a framework for evaluating genealogical research that follows three main stages: Sources, Information, and Evidence. It provides a concetual approach to evaluating and analyzing information from various sources and the origin of the information. The EAP emphasizes the importance of assessing the reliability of each source. Researchers should carefully examine the origin and nature of each fact, and document their sources. This helps determine the weight to give to different pieces of information when conflicts arise regarding the reliability of information.

As reflected in the diagram above, the EAP Map consists of three main sequential steps that lead to a conclusion:

1. Sources: The process begins with gathering and evaluating source materials. This first step deals with the document or object itself, not the data the the source transmits. Examining the document is necessary because doing so will assist in determining the credibility of the information found in the document or object. [24]
2. Information: After the source (the document or object itself) has been examined, the next category to consider is the information is the facts or data recorded on the source. Sources provide information that must be assessed for credibility and reliability. [25]
3. Evidence: Information is analyzed to select relevant evidence that supports or contradicts the research question [26]

The Evidence Analysis Process Map encourages researchers to correlate details and compare information from multiple sources. This systematic approach helps identify patterns, dissimilarities, or conflicts that could strengthen or weaken a conclusion. This consideration is vital in assessing the strength of corroborating or conflicting evidence.

Practical Application: Levels of Certainty

While classifying a source or type of information is important, whether a source is original or derivative is not an indication of the reliability of the information it contains. To determine that, we need understand the source of the information or fact and how it was created.

In my attempt to document the events or specific facts associated with relatives, I utilize a wide range of primary and secondary genealogical and historical sources as well as original and derived sources of data when I am focused on a specific fact. I try to assess the reliability of those sources and then make decisions about how to use those facts. Sometimes a decision is made not to use a “fact”. I conclude that there is not enough documentation to use it as evidence. I may provide information on a particular dead end fact as ‘posted note’ for future research.

“Within sound genealogical studies, information statements about dates, identities, places, relationships, and similar matters are frequently prefaced by such terms as apparently, likely, possibly, or probably—all denoting that the stated “fact” is clouded by doubt. To date, these terms have no concrete definitions; practically speaking, they take on whatever shade each individual researcher provides with his or her supporting detail.” [27]

I have developed a rudimentary five point, ordinal scale that reflects how I evaluate the general evidence about a given genealogical statement. (See table one below.) It is not intended to be a rigorous scale to evaluate facts and evidence.. It is basically an heuristic construct to put things into perspective and to couch my assessments of various sources of facts when beset with conflicting information. [28]

Table One: Levels of Factual Reliability and Genealogical Evidence

Proof Level	Level of Certainty “Common Language Qualifiers”	Consistency Between Sources & Examples / Types of Sources of Evidence
ONE	Conclusive Convincing “Is /Was”	► Facts are consistent between all available record sources.  ► Evidence supported by variety of independent records, direct and indirect sources.
TWO	“Very Likely” “With Noted Exceptions”	► Information is consistent between available records sources with few exceptions. ► Majority of evidence supported by information from a variety of independent record sources.
THREE	“Probable” “Most Likely”	► Evidence supported by variety of record sources.. ► A majority of various document sources provide similar information.
FOUR	“Likely”	► Limited sources of conflicting evidence. ► At least half of all types of various document sources provide similar information.
FIVE	“Possible”	► Limited sources of conflicting information. Indirect or negative evidence is relied upon to make a decision on available evidence.

The Spelling of Nathaniel’s Surname

An example of this research process can be demonstrated in my research on determining the surname spelling for Nathaniel Griffes, as discussed in a prior story. Nathaniel Griffes is my fourth great grand-uncle. He was the sixth child of twelve children of William Griffis and Abiah Gates Griffis – the last common documented ancestor of the Griffis family in America. Nathaniel and his descendants are the only family branch to spell their surname as such.

My research on the various branches of the family surname led me to the conclusion that there were three variants in the spelling of the surname: Griffis, Griffith and Griffes. In my attempt to document the different spellings of the surname within and across generations of the family, I have compared various genealogical sources for an individual person and assessed the reliability of those sources.

The ‘ordinal scale of proof’ can be used as a heuristic guide to determine how I assessed various sources of evidence for the spelling of Nathaniel’s surname and for a given individual in his family.

I have documented ‘conclusive’ evidence to support the statement that Nathaniel and his descendants spelled their surname as Griffes. There is evidence supported by variety of independent records that are either direct and indirect sources.

• In the 1810 U.S. Census his name is spelled Griffis. [29]
• In the 1820 census, it is spelled Griffies. [30]
• In the 1840 census it is spelled Griffes. [31]
• A Nathaniel Griffis is found as an enlisted Revolutionary soldier in Albany in 1776. [32] Church records indicate that his name was spelled as Griffes. [33]
• His Will [34] and probate records also reflect that his name was spelled Griffes. [35]
• Burial documentation reflects his name was spelled Griffes and there is a large family presence of Griffes family members in Vale cemetery in Schenectady, New York. 19 members of the Griffes family were buried in the cemetery. [36]

Table Two: Applying the Ordinal Scale in the Spelling of Nathaniel Griffes’ Name

Proof Level	Level of Certainty “Common Language Qualifiers”	Consistency Between Sources & Examples / Types of Sources of Evidence	Conclusion
ONE	Conclusive Convincing “Is /Was”	► Facts are consistent between all available direct record sources.  ► Evidence supported by variety of independent records, direct and indirect sources.	“Nathanial and his descendants spelled their surname as Griffes”

How Old was John Sperber?

Another example determining the reliability of facts and evidence in family research is how I determined when my second great grandfather Johann Wolfgang Sperber was born. Table three provides information on facts and evidence using the EAP Mapping model.

Table Three: When was John Wolfgang Sperber Born

Source	Information	Evidence	Birth Year
Original: National Archive’s micro- publication M237 “Passenger Lists of Vessels Arriving at New York, 1850-1856 , Rolls 85.-169	Secondary: Three J. Sperber’s found: ▸ age 26, ar. 1952 ▸ age 26, ar. 1956 ▸ age 26, ar. 1955 One W. Sperber found: ▸ age 26, ar. 1953	Negative: The records provide variable information on a J. Sperber or W. Serber arriving from European ports between 1850 and 1856; do not know if it is John W Sperber.	Uncertain
Original: Marriage Certificate of John Wolfgang Sperber and Sophia Fliegel	Primary: John and Sophia were married on 2 Feb 1857 in Gloversville, N.Y.	Negative : The record does not mention his age. The record does not directly address the research question.	Uncertain
Orignal: 1865 N.Y. State Census, New York State Archives; Albany, New York, USA; Census of the State of New York, 1865, Page 387, Line 33	Secondary: Enumerator documented his age as 35. This would imply he was born in 1828	Direct: The record does directly address his age.	1828
Original: 1870 Federal Census; Johnstown, Fulton, New York; Roll: M593_938; Page: 183A	Secondary: Enumerator documented his age as 41. This would imply he was born in 1828	Direct: The record does directly address his age.	1828
Original: 1875 N.Y. State Census, Fulton, , Johnstown, E.D. 02,Page 428, Line 30, New York State Archives; Albany, NY, USA;	Secondary: Enumerator documented his age as 47. This would imply he was born in 1828	Negative: The record does directly address his age.	1828
Original: 1880 Federal Census, Gloversville, Fulton, New York; Roll: 834; Page: 95A, Line 30; Enumeration District: 006	Secondary: Enumerator documented his age as 51. This would imply he was born in 1829	Direct: The record does directly address his age.	1829
Original: 1900 U.S. Federal Census, National Archives & Records Administration, Gloversville Ward 1, Fulton, New York; Roll: 1036; Page: 5; Enumeration District: 0006,  Page 5, Line 98.	Secondary: John Sperber reported as 72 years old,	Indirect: The record directly addresses age.	1828
Derivative: Find A Grave, Memorial ID: 158839082, Plot Section 8, Prospect Hill Cemetery, Gloversville, Fulton County, New York	Primary: Inscription on head stone: “Father”. Additional information in memorial states John was born 2 Jan 1828 in Baden, Germany.	Indirect: The record indicates his birth year.	2 Jan 1828

It appears that with few exceptions, available documentation on John Sperber suggests that he was born in 1828 and possibly on January 2nd.

Table Four: Applying the Ordinal Scale for Determining John Sperber’s Birth Year

Proof Level	Level of Certainty “Common Language Qualifiers”	Consistency Between Sources & Examples / Types of Sources of Evidence	Example
TWO	“Very Likely” “With Noted Exceptions”	► Information is consistent between available records sources with few exceptions. ► Majority of evidence supported by information from a variety of independent record sources.	“With noted exceptions, documentation indicates that John Sperber was born in 1828.”

Conclusion

In the end, the best combination of sources of proof involve first hand accounts along with objective, independent corroborating sources. Without that combination, it comes down to gradations of informed hunches. The key is providing a written explanation of how you reached your conclusions.

Indirect sources require corroboration. One thing I am certain is you cannot totally rely on how census or tax roll enumerators, or military pay rolls spelled names in their documents. I imagine the recorders of information relied on what they heard from who ever answered door or what they heard and spelled phonetically. How questions were phrased also play a part in the type of answers that are provided. You are also faced with deciphering their handwriting. [37]

Three Stooges Skit on a Census Taker: Are You Married or Happy?

If I was trying to pinpoint the birth of a given relative, I might have found a family or individual headstone in a cemetery.In addition. I may have discovered a number of conflicting references of date of birth in various state and Federal census tabulations. I might even have a birth certificate or a microfiche copy of a birth certificate. There might be a newspaper story about the person’s birth. All of these facts may or may not reflect the same birth date. The challenge becomes what to consider as more reliable than others to state, as evidence, a specific birthdate of a relative.

Something like a headstone may appear to be a source of solid facts. One might assume that a headstone with a name carved into the stone reflects a convincing argument of how the surname was spelled, when the person was born or died and perhaps who was their spouse. While mistakes have been made on head stones, the amount of effort put into creating a marker for an individual’s burial is much more involved than simply transcribing a name on paper. Proof of information on a headstone and its spelling of the surname may provide more weight on a given birth date than what might be found in a Federal census.

One assumes that a relative of or someone who knew the deceased provided correct information to be carved on the headstone. One is also assuming the individual who carved the inscriptions in the headstone completed the job without errors. If an error occurred, family members may decide to ignore the inaccuracy based on the cost of replacing the headstone. If you are looking at a very old headstone, deciphering the lettering and numbers can be challenging. [38]

Having additional documentation such as census records, birth certificates, or newspapers articles about the person may increase the veracity and reliability of information on the headstone. However, the additional information (e.g. birth certificate, newspaper obituary, etc) may cast doubt on the date chiseled on the tomb stone. Ultimately a decision is made, perhaps couched in terms of the probability on the vital statistics found on the headstone.

It is not a fool proof method. I may still have missed the target on establishing the reliability or trustworthiness of information associated with many statements found in the family stories. Hopefully my level of success is much better than a professional baseball player’s batting average.

Sources

Feature Image: An amalgam of stock photographs about facts and evidence, the sources of the original images are found at: Division of Property and Evidence, Caldwell Police, City of Caldwell, https://www.cityofcaldwell.org/departments/caldwell-police/divisions/evidence ; Electronic Evidence and Opinion No. 19, 7 Jul 2020,  Digital evidence, European Committee on Legal Co-operation, https://www.coe.int/en/web/cdcj/digital-evidence/-/asset_publisher/7dbCE86mCocc/content/belarus-gender-equality-and-justice?; and Fact or opinion?, ChangeFactory, https://www.changefactory.com.au/our-thinking/articles/fact-or-opinion/

[1] Evaluate the Evidence, FamilySearch Wiki, This page was last edited on 30 April 2023, https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Evaluate_the_Evidence

[2] Alternative Facts, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 1 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_facts

Susan Martinez-Conde and Stephen L. Macknick, Scientific American, Jan 27, 2017, The Delusion of Alternative Facts, https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/illusion-chasers/the-delusion-of-alternative-facts/

[3] Brian Eno / Chris Frantz / David Byrne / Jerry Harrison / Tina Weymouth, Crosseyed and Painless lyrics © Universal Music Publishing Group, Warner Chappell Music, Inc

Crosseyed and Painless, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 8 April 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosseyed_and_Painless

Talking Heads – Crosseyed and Painless – Official Original Video 1980, YouTube, https://youtu.be/_Zrkf65GmwE?si=n5i5GNG5BT5mmYTh

Lyrics of Cross Eyed andPainless, Talking Heads , SongFacts, https://www.songfacts.com/lyrics/talking-heads/crosseyed-and-painless

[4] The following are a few examples on ‘what are facts’.

Kevin Mulligan and Fabrice Correia,  Facts, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, revised Oct 16, 2020, Edward N. Zalta (ed.) , https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/facts/

Fact, Oxford Dictionary, Google Search of ‘Fact”

Fact, Dictionary.com, https://www.dictionary.com/browse/fact#

Fact, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 9 June 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact

Morgan Housel, The Difference Between a Statistic and a Fact, Nov 17, 2016, MorganHouse, https://collabfund.com/blog/the-difference-between-a-stat-and-a-fact/

Fact, Cambridge Dictionary, Pages accessed 10 Nov 2023, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/fact#.

Fact, Merriam Webster, Page accessed 10 Nov 2023, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fact

[5] See quote, for example, from:

The illusion of evidence based medicine, BMJ 16 Mar 2022; 376:702,  doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.o702 

Evidence, Evaluation, and Learning, U.S. Department of State, https://www.state.gov/evidence-evaluation-and-learning/

[6] Here are a number of source references on the concept of ‘evidence’:

Evidence, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 10 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence

Thomas, Kelley, Evidence, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), revision Mon Jul 28, 2014,    https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evidence/

Victor DiFate, Evidence, International Encyclopedia of Philosphy, https://iep.utm.edu/evidence/

Bryan L. Mulcahy, How to Evaluate Genealogical Evidence, November 15, 2016, Illinois Sons of American Revolution,  https://www.illinois-sar.org/uploads/9/7/6/5/97654736/how_to_evaluate_genealogical_evidence.pdf

Evidence Analysis Explained Part III: Evaluating Genealogical Evidence, LegacyTree Genealogists, https://www.legacytree.com/blog/evaluating-genealogical-evidence

Thomas W. Jones, Using Indirect and Negative Evidence to Prove Unrecorded Events, 2021, https://familysearch.brightspotcdn.com/ef/f4/6f1e19da4506a2e177c6d22c1925/jones-indirectandnegative-rt.pdf

Elizabeth Shown Mills, in “QuickLesson 13: Classes of Evidence—Direct, Indirect & Negative,”Evidence Explained: Historical Analysis, Citation & Source Usage, Dec 11, 2020 ( https://www.evidenceexplained.com/content/quicklesson-13-classes-evidence—direct-indirect-negative

Genealogical Proof Standard, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 13 December 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genealogical_Proof_Standard

Tyler S. Stahle, Understanding the Genealogical Proof Standard, March 9, 2016, https://www.familysearch.org/en/blog/understanding-the-genealogical-proof-standard

Elizabeth Shown Mills, Working with Historical Evidence: Genealogical Principles and Standards, Vol 87, No. 3, Sep 1999, Evidence, A special Issue of the National Genealogical Society Quarterly, Pages 165 – 184, https://www.historicpathways.com/download/workwthhistevidence.pdf.

Genealogical Proof Standard, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 13 December 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genealogical_Proof_Standard

[7] Edward Hallett Carr, What is History?, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962. Page 23

See also: Kenneth Andres, Analysis of E. H. Carr’s “The Historian and His Facts”, 16 Sep 2016, Medium, https://medium.com/@kennethandres/analysis-of-e-h-carrs-the-historian-and-his-facts-d59e7ac687ee

[8] Ibid, Page 34

[9] ” “the historian is engaged on a continuous process of moulding his facts to his interpretation and his interpretation to his facts. It is impossible to assign primacy to one over the other”. Edward Hallett Carr, What is History?, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962. Page 34

[10] Elizabeth Shown Mills, Working with Historical Evidence: Genealogical Principles and Standards, Vol 87, No. 3, Sep 1999, Evidence, A special Issue of the National Genealogical Society Quarterly, Pages 165 – 166, https://www.historicpathways.com/download/workwthhistevidence.pdf

[11] This is a quote that was originally in Robert J. Sampson, Great American City: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 384. I found it in: Thomas W. Jones, Perils of Source Snobbery, OnBoard , Newsletter of the Board of Certified Genealogists, 18 (May 2012),9–10, 15 https://bcgcertification.org/skillbuilding-perils-of-source-snobbery

[12] This is a blown up portion of an old paper pamphlet that was used to record family births, deaths and marriages were part of the artifacts of Harold Griffis. The pamphlet originally was used to document the births, marriages and deaths of Sperber family members. It appears that the pamphlet in time came into the possession of Rose’s youngest sister, Ida Sperber. The names of Harold and Evelyn and their first three children were then added to the bottom of the list of the Sperber family. On another page, the birth dates, marriages and deaths of maternal relatives of Evelyn Griffis, The Platts family, were also added to the pamphlet. It became a living written family testament of vital statistics for the Sperber, Platts, and Griffis families.

Births of Sperber Family Members

A closer look at the change of Rose’s birth year suggests that it was originally written as ‘1855’, which would have accurately reported her birth year as stated by her mother Sophia Sperber in another document. Her mother Sophie was married in 1857. The birth year on this document was probably revised to hide the fact that Rose was born out of wedlock.

[13] Griffis, Jim, Daniel Griffis – Captured, Imprisoned, & Perished, March 13, 2021, Griffis Family: Selected Stories from the Past, Blog

[14] Griffis, Jim, The Art of Translation and Discovery, July 4, 2023 Griffis Family: Selected Stories from the Past, Blog

[15] Griffis, Jim, Griff(is)(in)(ith)(iths)(es)(in)(ins)(ing) Surname and American Genealogies: Part One, February 17, 2022, Griffis Family: Selected Stories from the Past, Blog

[16] Stefani Evans, CG, “Evidence Correlation,” OnBoard 18 (September 2012), Newsletter of the Board of Certified Genealogists, https://bcgcertification.org/skillbuilding-evidence-correlation/

“Genealogists test their evidence by comparing and contrasting evidence items. They use such correlation to discover parallels, patterns and inconsistencies, including points at which evidence items agree, conflict or both. “

Board for Certification of Genealogists, Genealogy Standards Nashville: Turner Publishing Co., 2021

Melissa A. Johnson, The Importance of Genealogical Analysis and Correlation, April 2015, INGS Monthly, National Genealogical Society, https://www.ngsgenealogy.org/wp-content/uploads/Complimentary-NGS-Monthly-Articles/NGS-Monthly-Johnson-Analysis-Correlation-Apr2015.pdf

Thomas W. Jones, Assessing Genealogical Sources—Part 1, Jan 25, 2021, Genealogical Publishing, https://genealogical.com/2021/01/25/assessing-genealogical-sources-part-1/

How To Evaluate Sources For Confidence In Your Genealogy Research, Sep 28, 2023, https://www.heritagediscovered.com/blog/genealogy-brick-wall-how-to-evaluate-sources

[17] Genealogical Proof Standard, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 11 November 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genealogical_Proof_Standard

The Genealogical Proof Standard – International Institute, This page was last edited on 27 April 2023, https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/The_Genealogical_Proof_Standard_-_International_Institute

Stahle, Tyler S., Understanding the Genealogical Proof Standard, 9 Mar 2016, FamilySearch Blog, https://www.familysearch.org/en/blog/understanding-the-genealogical-proof-standard

Genealogical Proof Standard, This page was last edited on 30 April 2023, FamilySearch Wiki, https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Genealogical_Proof_Standard

Genealogical Proof Standard (GS), Board for Certification of Genealogists, https://bcgcertification.org/ethics-standards#genealogical-proof-standard-gps

[18] Evidence, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 10 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence

Thomas, Kelley, Evidence, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), revision Mon Jul 28, 2014,    https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evidence/

Victor DiFate, Evidence, International Encyclopedia of Philosphy, https://iep.utm.edu/evidence/

Bryan L. Mulcahy, How to Evaluate Genealogical Evidence, November 15, 2016, Illinois Sons of American Revolution,  https://www.illinois-sar.org/uploads/9/7/6/5/97654736/how_to_evaluate_genealogical_evidence.pdf

Evidence Analysis Explained: Digging Into Genealogical Sources, LegacyTree Genealogists, https://www.legacytree.com/blog/evidence-analysis-sources

Evidence Analysis Explained Part II: Evaluating Genealogy Information, LegacyTree Genealogists, https://www.legacytree.com/blog/evaluating-genealogy-information

Evidence Analysis Explained Part III: Evaluating Genealogical Evidence, LegacyTree Genealogists, https://www.legacytree.com/blog/evaluating-genealogical-evidence

Thomas W. Jones, Using Indirect and Negative Evidence to Prove Unrecorded Events, 2021, https://familysearch.brightspotcdn.com/ef/f4/6f1e19da4506a2e177c6d22c1925/jones-indirectandnegative-rt.pdf

Elizabeth Shown Mills, in “QuickLesson 13: Classes of Evidence—Direct, Indirect & Negative,”Evidence Explained: Historical Analysis, Citation & Source Usage, Dec 11, 2020 ( https://www.evidenceexplained.com/content/quicklesson-13-classes-evidence—direct-indirect-negative

Elizabeth Shown Mills, Evidence! Citation & Analysis for the Family Historian (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1997), 

Elizabeth Shown Mills, Evidence Explained: Citing History Sources from Artifacts to Cyberspace, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing, 2009) 

Elizabeth Mills, “Working with Historical Evidence: Genealogical Principles and Standards,” in Evidence: A Special Issue of the National Genealogical Society Quarterly, NGS Quarterly 87 (September 1999): 165–84 

Elizabeth Mills, Helen F. M. Leary, and Christine Rose, “Evidence Analysis: Definitions, Principles, and Practices,” in Virginia: Where a Nation Began, National Genealogical Society 1999 Conference in the States Program Syllabus (Arlington: NGS, 1999), 41–48

Elizabeth Mills and Donn Devine, ”Evidence Analysis,” in Mills, ed., Professional Genealogy: A Manual for Researchers, Writers, Editors, Lecturers, and Librarians (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 2001): 327–42

Genealogical Proof Standard, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 13 December 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genealogical_Proof_Standard

Tyler S. Stahle, Understanding the Genealogical Proof Standard, March 9, 2016, https://www.familysearch.org/en/blog/understanding-the-genealogical-proof-standard

Elizabeth Shown Mills, Working with Historical Evidence: Genealogical Principles and Standards, Vol 87, No. 3, Sep 1999, Evidence, A special Issue of the National Genealogical Society Quarterly, Pages 165 – 184, https://www.historicpathways.com/download/workwthhistevidence.pdf.

Diane Haddad, 3 Tips to Analyze Genealogical Evidence , Family Tree Magazine, https://familytreemagazine.com/general-genealogy/3-tips-to-analyze-genealogy-evidence/

Genealogical Proof Standard, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 13 December 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genealogical_Proof_Standard

[19] Primary sources are documents, images or artifacts that provide first hand testimony or direct evidence concerning an historical topic. They are original documents created or experienced contemporaneously with the event being researched. They also enable researchers to get as close as possible to what actually happened during an historical event or time period. 

Examples of primary sources include:

1. Letters, diaries, scrapbooks and journals;
2. Images or artifacts (e.g. clothing, furniture, material objects);
3. Photographs, audio recordings, video recordings, films
4. Government documents (e.g. census data, laws, regulations);
5. Interviews and oral histories;
6. Records of organizations
7. Autobiographies and memoirs
8. Printed ephemera (e.g. admission ticket, graduation ceremonies, a play, a movie, advertisements, etc.)
9. Historical newspapers and magazines; and
10. Works of literature or art created at the time.

Secondary sources are works that analyze, assess or interpret an historical event, era, or phenomenon, generally utilizing primary sources to do so. Secondary sources are generally written after the events that are being researched. However, if an individual wrote about events that he or she experienced first-hand many years after that event occurred, it is still considered a primary source because it is a direct account from a participant or witness to the event.

Examples of secondary sources include:

1. Historiographical works and textbooks;
2. Articles and book reviews;
3. Biographies and autobiographies; Newspaper editorials, journal articles, speeches, reviews, and research essays;
4. Documentaries and films about historical events; and
5. Encyclopedias and reference books about specific topics.

[20] Elizabeth Mills, “Working with Historical Evidence: Genealogical Principles and Standards,” in Evidence: A Special Issue of the National Genealogical Society Quarterly, NGS Quarterly 87 (September 1999): 171-172 , https://www.historicpathways.com/download/workwthhistevidence.pdf

[21] Elizabeth Mills, “Working with Historical Evidence: Genealogical Principles and Standards,” in Evidence: A Special Issue of the National Genealogical Society Quarterly, NGS Quarterly 87 (September 1999): 169 , https://www.historicpathways.com/download/workwthhistevidence.pdf

[22] The original source of the Evidence Analysis Process Map can be found in Mills, Elizabeth Shown. “Working with Historical Evidence: Genealogical Principles and Standards.” Evidence: A Special Issue of the National Genealogical Society Quarterly 87 (September 1999): 165–84.

See also: Elizabeth Shown Mills, “QuickLesson 17: The Evidence Analysis Process Model,” Evidence Explained: Historical Analysis, Citation & Source Usage (https://www.evidenceexplained.com/content/quicklesson-17-evidence-analysis-process-map

Mills, Elizabeth Shown , A Template for Evaluating Evidence, Genealogical Computing 24 (April–June 2004) [extracted from unpaginated archived copy, Ancestry.com (http://www.ancestry.com/learn/library/article.aspx?article=9270 : 16 October 2011) also https://www.historicpathways.com/download/templateforee.pdf

The original map:

See: Seaver, Randy, Changes to the Evidence Analysis Process Map in GPS, 6 May 2013, Genea-Musings, https://www.geneamusings.com/2013/05/changes-to-evidence-analysis-process-map.html

[23] Evidence Analysis Explained: Digging Into Genealogical Sources, LegacyTree Genealogists, https://www.legacytree.com/blog/evidence-analysis-sources

Evidence Analysis Explained Part II: Evaluating Genealogy Information, LegacyTree Genealogists, https://www.legacytree.com/blog/evaluating-genealogy-information

Evidence Analysis Explained Part III: Evaluating Genealogical Evidence, LegacyTree Genealogists, https://www.legacytree.com/blog/evaluating-genealogical-evidence

[24] There are three general sources of information: original , derivative and narrative.

• Original: The actual record, document, or object;
• Derivative: A record or object created at a later date which reports the same information as the original source.
• Narrative: An original narrative with conclusions that is a product of original  and derivative source research.

Evidence Analysis Explained: Digging Into Genealogical Sources, LegacyTree Genealogists, https://www.legacytree.com/blog/evidence-analysis-sources

[25]  This category is subdivided three ways:

• Primary: Information was recorded at or near the time of the event by someone wo had first hand knowledge.
• Secondary: Information was recordsed after the time of the event or by someone who did not have director or first hand knowedge.
• Undetermined: Insufficient data is provided to accurately identify the informant. 

Evidence Analysis Explained Part II: Evaluating Genealogy Information, LegacyTree Genealogists, https://www.legacytree.com/blog/evaluating-genealogy-information

[26] “The purpose of genealogy is to reach defensible conclusions about our ancestors. This is done through proper analysis of the evidence. When we consider the sources, the information, and the evidence we can reach conclusions which are reliable.“

“There are three types of evidence: Direct, Indirect, and Negative. 

• Direct: Conclusions about facts or information that were drawn from explicit sources appear to need no additional supporting documentation .
• Indirect: Conclusions about facts or information that were drawn from mutliple sources because no single source directly answers the research question.
• Negative: Conclusions about facts or information that were drawn because evidence fails to exist.

Evidence Analysis Explained Part III: Evaluating Genealogical Evidence, LegacyTree Genealogists, https://www.legacytree.com/blog/evaluating-genealogical-evidence

[27] Elizabeth Shown Mills, Working with Historical Evidence: Genealogical Principles and Standards, Vol 87, No. 3, Sep 1999, Evidence, A special Issue of the National Genealogical Society Quarterly, Page 181, https://www.historicpathways.com/download/workwthhistevidence.pdf

[28] My ordinal scale of certainty is similar to a three tier scale in Norman Ingham’s discussion of the processes involved in genealogical analysis:

• (Reasonable) certainty, used at the “proof” stage—a term signifying a convincing degree that is comparable to the math/physics concept verification.
• Possibility, used at the “speculation” stage—a term comparable to the math/physics concepts intuition and guess.
• Probability, used at the “hypothesis” stage—a term comparable to the math/physics concepts proposal and conjecture.

Inghan, Norman W. , “Some Thoughts about Evidence and Proof in Genealogy,” The American Genealogist 72 (July–October 1997): 380–85

[29] Nathaniel Griffis, 1810 U.S. Census, New York, Albany, Watervliet, Line 20, Page 1312

[30] Nathaniel Griffes, 1820 U.S. Census, New York, Schenectady, Niskayuna, Line 16, Page 577

[31] National Griffes, 1840 U.S. Census, New York, Schenectady, Niskayuna, Line 15, Page 353

[32] Nathaniel Griffis, Albany County Militia (Land Bounty Rights) – Sixth Regiment Regiment, New York in the Revolution as Colony and State, Vol. I: The Militia, Compillation of Documents and Records from the Office of the State Comptroller, Albany: J.B. Lyon Company, 1904, page 227 See footnote 32 above for image.

[33] Nathaniel Griffes and family were members of the Dutch Reformed Church in Schenectady, New York. The church records indicate that Nathaniel Griffes and his wife Mary Ann Griffes, and Mary Esther Griffes became a members in 30 October 1834. The three are listed again as being received into the church on 1 November 1842. Nathaniel’s son James A. Griffis was received into the church congregation on 6 June 1853. His wife was received by ‘confession’ on 4 June 1869.

[34] Will of Nathaniel Griffes, U.S. Wills and Probate Records, 1659 – 1999, Schenectady Wills, Vol D – E, 1832 – 1845, date of Will 20 May 142, date of Probate 15 Apr 1842, Probate Place Schenectady NY, Image 325 – 327, Pages 386 – 390. See PDF copy of will.

[35] Nathaniel Griffes, Probate Date 15 Apr 1842, Probate Place Schenectady, New York, Inferred Death Date 1842 Letters Test, Vol 0004-0006, 1839-1863, image 68, Page 32, Ancestry.com. New York, U.S., Wills and Probate Records, 1659-1999 [database on-line]. Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2015. Original data: New York County, District and Probate Courts.

[36] Vale Cemetery Memorials for Individuals named Griffes, Find a Grave website, accessed 31 Mar 2022. There are nineteen individuals buried in the cemetery with the surname Griffes.

Griffes Family Members Buried in Vale Cemetery

Name	Dates	Plot information
Angelica K. Schermerhorn Griffes	1847-1930	Sect H lot 12
Anna R Griffes	4 Feb 1861 – 6 Nov 1885	Section M-3
Catherine Nichols Griffes	18 Feb 1838 – 28 Jan 1890	Section H
Catherine Maria Griffes	unknown – 1841
Esther Griffes	1778 – 3 Jun 1848
James A Griffes	3 Dec 1839 – 18 Jan 1898	Section M-3
Jane Viele Griffes	24 Oct 1832 – 25 Jul 1918	M-30
Joel Griffes	10 May 1799 – 24 Oct 1828
Julia Griffes	1815 – 1890
Julia A Griffes	10 Dec 1838 – 25 Sep 1864	M-3
Julie Ann Griffes	unknown – 1848
Maria Griffes	1817 – 9 Jul 1828
Mary Whitney Griffes	1808 – 1877
Nathaniel Griffes	unknown – 11 May 1956	H-12
Nathaniel Griffes	3 Oct 1763 – 3 Mar 1842
Sally Griffes	unknown – 1819
Stephen Griffes	1805 – 1850
William W Griffes	29 Oct 1870 – 22 Jul 1872
William Whitney Griffes	1835 – 17 Jan 1905

[37] Early census records are often difficult to read and appear to have obvious errors. To what degree are these earlier records considered reliable when doing research?, Quora, https://www.quora.com/Early-census-records-are-often-difficult-to-read-and-appear-to-have-obvious-errors-To-what-degree-are-these-earlier-records-considered-reliable-when-doing-research

When evaluating any source, it is always wise to consider how, when, and under what conditions the record was made.

For example, by understanding some of the difficulties encountered by enumerators, it becomes easier to understand why some individuals cannot be found in the census schedules or their indexes.

From the first enumeration in 1790 to the most recent in 2000, the government has experienced difficulties in gathering precise information for a number of reasons. At least one of the problems experienced in extracting information from individuals for the first census continues to vex officials today: there were and still are many people who simply do not trust the government’s motives. Many citizens have worried that their answers to census questions might be used against them, particularly in regards to taxation, military service, and immigration. Some have simply refused to answer enumerators’ questions; others have lied.

https://wiki.rootsweb.com/wiki/index.php/Overview_of_the_U.S._Census

[38] 3 Methods for Reading Hard-to-Read Tombstones, March 7, 2019, Merkle Monuments, https://www.merklemonuments.com/reading-hard-to-read-tombstones ; Karen Miller Bennett, Five Tips for Safely Reading and Photographing Tombstones, Karen’s Chat, Blog, https://karenmillerbennett.com/tombstone/five-tips-for-safely-reading-and-photographing-tombstones/ ; Cemetery Conservators for United Standards, Reading Stones Basics, https://cemeteryconservatorsunitedstandards.org/reading-stones/

This story is a bit different from the other stories of our family’s past. This story and three successive stories focus on how I view and conduct genealogical research and create stories of the past. I thought it would be appropriate to provide some background on how I approach and conduct research on family members and families in the past.

Hopefully these discussions about how I frame genealogical questions and conduct research do not get too deep or boring. I promise more stories about actual relatives will follow. I have so much material to produce these stories. I just hope I have sufficient time to get them out of my head for family members to enjoy. I also hope to get as many old photographs out of boxes for everyone to view and enjoy.

In order to answer the various questions that arise when reconstructing our family’s past, one needs to gather all the possible evidence, vet it for bias and authenticity, understand the larger historical picture presented by these facts and place them into context, and then make logical conclusions on what is a useful premise for a given story.

I am making it sound easy. 

It actually takes a lot of digging through physical and digital source material. It also takes a lot of patience, objectivity, tenacity, focus, analysis and luck to find information or facts that appear to document a simple assertion about someone or solve a genealogical question. It then may entail many hours of focused research and analysis to get all those facts and evidence somewhat straight, trustworthy and reliable. The final step is to attempt to package these facts or evidence in a manner that makes them come to life and become an interesting story.

My method and approach to genealogical research is basically a continuous process involved with evaluating historical evidence. What I write today may change based on subsequent discoveries of new facts about my family or alternative information on interpreting existing facts.

Despite having what one might think is a well established and documented outline of family facts, attempting to write about a particular subject often reveals holes in my research. The ‘devil is in the details‘. This motivates me to try to clean up and make my earlier research more reliable and trustworthy. This usually leads me down more “rabbit holes” of research. [1]

My Goals as an Amateur Genealogist and Family Historian

According to the Board for Certification of Genealogists (BCG), “All genealogists strive to reconstruct family histories or achieve genealogical goals that reflect historical reality as closely as possible.” [2] The BCG is a prominent organization in the field of genealogy that plays a crucial role in maintaining professional standards and credibility within the industry. [3]

The BCG statement above has been referenced by many professional and amateur genealogists and family historians. [4] This is a sound principle and standard to guide one’s research efforts. It is a central tenet that I follow. Whether all genealogists strive to abide by this standard is an open question.

Similar to other genealogists, I have several key objectives when conducting research. The following four come to mind:

• A major goal is to trace, with the greatest accuracy, family lineages as far back in time as possible. This involves identifying direct ancestors through multiple generations and establishing kinship family trees among those ancestors.
• Documenting personal information and histories on specific individual family members is a major goal.
• Beyond names, dates, and family relationships, another goal is to discover personal stories, develop historical context, and interesting details about ancestors’ lives. This brings family history to life and creates a richer narrative.
• I also am fortunate to have inherited a large body of photographs of descendants that lived within the last 200 years and material items that that were made or belonged to family descendants. A major goal is to share information about these photogtraphs and historical items to family members.and other interested parties.

My General Perspective on Genealogy and Family History

My views of genealogy and family history and research questions closely resemble the perspectives of an historian. I have the desire to place the information I may have on a given individual, family and kinship network in the historical context of a community or geographical area. I also have an interest in establishing plausible narratives of the movement of ancestors from one place to another.

There are perhaps a number of general influences on how I conduct my research and write my stories.. Three overarching outlooks are:

1. My general perspective of traditional genealogical and family history research partly requires ‘looking through the lens’ of what C. Wright Mills called a ‘sociological imagination‘.
2. I view traditional genealogy as a form of micro-history and social history. [5]
3. I view an interrelatedness between traditional and genetic genealogy research that can create a more comprehensive and accurate picture of certain facets of our family history and kinship networks.

Sociological Imagination

A ‘sociological imagination‘ is a critical mindset for understanding the relationships between individuals and society and orienting genealogical research. C. Wright Mills introduced the concept of the sociological imagination in his 1959 book “The Sociological Imagination“. For genealogy and family history, it means putting genealogical evidence in context with larger social and cultural influences. [6]

In the context of genealogical research, the sociological imagination is a way of thinking of how to connect personal information of ancestors’ to historical information related to larger social structures, historical forces, and public issues at the time of their lives. Mills saw the sociological imagination as a critical tool for understanding the complex relationships between individuals and society.

Mills argued that neither individual lives nor the history of society can be understood without understanding both. It requires looking beyond personal circumstances and facts associated with family members in the past and considering the broader historical, cultural and social contexts that shaped their individual lives.

This perspective enables me to step back from looking at family members’ immediate personal experiences and facts and see how they connect to wider societal patterns and historical trends. It allows me to understand how biography and history intersect – how an ancestor’s personal experiences and related facts were shaped by their place in history and society.

Similar to Mills’ perspective, genealogists and historians in the past sixty-five years have also underscored that “one of the fundamental tenets of genealogy today is that we cannot trace our ancestors in isolation of their community”. [7]

‘History from Below’ – Microhistory and a Social Historical Perspective

The work and methods used by social historians have given me insight on how to broaden my approach to conduct genealogical research as well as craft family stories. They have revealed novel sources of gathering genealogical information and weaving that information in with traditional historical narratives at the community, regional and national levels. Depending on the subject of their research, I have also been able to incorporate their results in my writing.

In my view, similar to many genealogists and social historians, genealogy is the history of the common person. Some of our families may have had a “great person” in their past or have a “prominent family” in one of the branches of a family tree. These individuals or families are amply documented by facts and evidence from a variety of historical sources. They may even be memorialized by historians, newsprint or family narratives. However, most of our ancestors led common lives. Many of the vital facts about their lives are limited. Much of their lives were not directly documented or the sources of those documented facts were destroyed or remain hidden. [8]

“(T)he majority of … people led quiet, blameless lives and left very few traces, and almost all sources of biography come with collision with authorities.  This tends to be for purposes of registration (birth, marriage, death, census, taxes, poor relief, etc) or for legal reasons, whether criminal… or civil. “ [9]

Most of our family ancestors were common people whose lives were not directly documented throughout stages of their lives. One of the inherent challenges in genealogical research is filling in the gaps, linking the few facts we discover about an ancestor or family through various other sources of evidence.

“History from the bottom up” is a historical approach that focuses on the lives of ordinary people and how they shape the past. It can be applied to a variety of scales, including: the individual level, family, local community, occupations and larger structural levels. Its methodological approach begins with small social groups, specific topics, and short time periods before expanding to broader contexts. It incorporates interdisciplinary methods from economics, statistics, and other social sciences. It challenges traditional top-down narratives by revealing how ordinary people actively shaped historical events. [10]

American social historians in the 1970s shifted away from studying elites and “great men” to examining the lives and experiences of ordinary people and marginalized groups. This “history from below” or “social history” approach aimed to reconstruct the perspectives of common people throughout history. The new social historians drew on methods and theories from other social sciences (such as sociology, demography, economics, anthropology, and geography) and genealogy. [11]

Social historians employed a variety of research methods that drew heavily from the social sciences. Quantitative methods became very popular among social historians in the 1960s-1970s. Quantification was seen as indispensable for doing “history from the bottom up” and understanding the local social structural influences on the lives of ordinary people. [12]

The field of social history later embraced greater ‘methodological pluralism’. Quantitative approaches continued but were supplemented by a diverse range of qualitative methods. “Methodological pluralism in history” refers to the idea that historians should not rely on just one type of source or method to study the past, but instead should utilize a variety of approaches, including quantitative data, qualitative interviews, archival documents, visual analysis, and oral histories, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of historical events and perspectives from different angles. It advocates for the use of multiple methodologies to avoid bias and provide a richer historical narrative. The goal was an integrative social history combining the best of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. [13]

Their research innovations were wedding historical individual level tracing practices associated with genealogical research and empirical approaches to examining community and regional population patterns. Part of their approach drew on the same sources and methods as those used by genealogists. The difference is the “the questions asked of the material”. [14]

Historians provide genealogists with many valuable perspectives that help to put families into clearer historical focus. Social historians examine broad social, economic, and demographic structures and long-term historical processes rather than specific events or individuals or families. Social historians look at factors like family and kinship systems, class structure, migration, ethnicity, patterns of work and leisure, and urbanization and industrialization.

Approaches utilized by social historians have increasingly documented the benefits of genealogy as a source of historical information and research methods associated with records and archival-research skills. Conversely, professional genealogists have underscored the need to place genealogical lineages and families into a broader social and historical context.

“The archival record is merely an artifact, a momentary product of a given act in time and space, and not a reflection of the context of life itself. It should be used as a window through which the broader events of life may be visualized and reconstructed.” [15]

As a professional genealogist Elizabeth Mills indicated, genealogy is micro-history and historical biography.

“Genealogists pluck individual people out of the typically nameless, faceless masses whom historians write about in broad terms. One by one, we breathe life back into people from the past. We piece together again the scattered fragments of their lives. We put them into their historical, social, and economic settings. Then we use our research and analytical skills to stitch these individuals together into the distinctive patchwork quilt that tells each family’s story. “ [16]

In the mid 1970s, Samuel Hays, an historian, urged genealogists to broaden the context of their family histories to make them more meaningful inquiries, to go beyond brief thumbnail biographies concerned with demographic facts of birth, death, occupation and family trees. [17]

Use of Genetic Genealogical Methods

Traditional genealogy and genetic genealogy are complementary approaches that work together to create a more complete picture of a family history. DNA testing can enhance traditional genealogical research in several key ways through autosomal DNA (atDNA), Y-DNA, and Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) testing and analysis. [18]

Autosomal DNA testing provides connections to relatives across all ancestral lines and have aided my efforts to identify relationships up to approximately five generations back. Y-DNA and mtDNA testing complement traditional genealogical research by providing distinct insights beyond the traditional paper trail associated with traditional genealogy into paternal and maternal lineages respectively.

DNA testing is often used in genealogical research simply to confirm or refute traditional paper evidence. However, there are other advantages in utilizing DNA evidence. Rob Spencer, a genetic genealogist that favors a macroscopic view of revealing broad genetic patterns from genetic data, points our attention to other utilities of DNA research in genealogy. DNA testing provides a broader approach in which DNA connects to previously unknown people, living or dead, who may have other evidence relevant to our ancestry. DNA can ‘jump over information gaps’ in a lineage to connect to earlier ancestors and geographic locations. 

Rob Spencer provides a graphic portrayal of tracing one’s ancestor’s based on three levels of research (illustration one). The first level deals with traditional genealogical ‘paper trails’ and research which can provide information in the recent past. Beyond 300 years, the paper trail tends to thin out and evaporate. [19]

Illustration One: Three Levels of Genealogical Research

For example, within the first level of research in Spencer’s diagram, autosomal and Y-DNA can complement our efforts in documenting genealogy in the past six to ten generations. The results of Short Tandem Repeat (STR) DNA tests connected to other DNA testers can help build out family trees through information they might have on other family members. These DNA tests can help build out family tree where our paper records are limited. I have also been able to decipher the origins of the Griffis surname through traditional genealogy and Y DNA analysis. [20]

The use of Y-DNA research can help trace unknown ancestors prior to the use of surnames, pinpoint possible regional areas where ancestors lived, provide possible links to the recent past and link seemingly non-related individuals in the present to your genetic lineage. This is the second level in Spencer’s chart.

Y-SNP (Single nucleotide Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) DNA testing and research, coupled with archaeological and paleo-genomic discoveries can also shed light on macro level connections to migration patterns that can be associated with genetic ancestors.

Y-STR and Y-SNP testing have distinct characteristics that make them suitable for different types of genetic analysis, as reflected in the following table.

Comparison of STRs and SNPs

Feature	STRs	SNPs
Mutation Rate	Higher	Lower
Stability	Less stable	Very stable
Reversibility	Can reverse	Rarely reverse
Time Scale	Recent ancestry ~ 1,500 years ago	Ancient ancestry ~ 50,000 years ago

Using various types of DNA tests can increase the success of discovering additional genealogical information.

1. Finding genealogical matches with different surnames. Since the Griff(is)(es)(ith) surname was a Welsh surname, the use of surnames did not become firmly established in certain parts of Wales until the late 1700’s to mid 1800’s. The use of Y-STR and Y-SNP DNA tests increases the chances of finding genetically related ancestors with different surnames in Europe.
2. Finding genealogical matches currently confirmed through traditional research. The Y-STR DNA test can find matches with individuals that have already been documented in my family tree. Additional clues to male family members that are descendants of William Griffis can be found.
3. Finding genealogical matches that point to Wales. Regardless of surname, genetic descendants can potentially be located in Wales and in Europe in general.
4. Identify unknown ancestors and lineages in timelines where no records exist.  The DNA test could narrow the search of male ancestors to specific genetic Y-DNA lines and identify the branching in these paternal lines. 
5. Identify ancient groups and migration patterns associated with the genertic paternal line. The Y-SNP and Y-STR DNA tests are able to obtain information on the patrilineal line at a higher, anthropological level and gain insights into the population level migratory patterns and that can be correlated with of the lineage.

Genealogy and Family History

I oftentimes use terms ‘family history‘ and ‘genealogy‘ interchangeably. Granted, the two terms and orientations do have subtle differences or priorities. Despite those differences, they are inextricably connected in most of our family storytelling. [21]

I believe the subtle differences between the two terms are more apparent when genetic genealogical research is introduced. Genealogical time is stretched beyond the time span of 300 years that is usually associated with traditional genealogical research, The ability to provide a family history of a given person or family diminishes and eventually vanishes as we go back in time. Traditional records evaporate after a number of generations and are replaced with genetic mutations from DNA tests or paleo artifacts. 

Our terminology consequently changes and the focus of our story changes as we go back in time. We gradually start looking at our respective family descendants in terms of genetic distance, the location and movement of genetic lineages and haplogroups, and the presence of ancient cultures that might correlate with where our descendants may have been situated.

Genetic genealogy introduces a different view of time and the analysis of ‘genealogical facts’. If we add genetic genealogy as another possible source of genealogical methods to retrieve facts and evidence, then the notion of time radically expands in scope and how we perceive and measure time and view genealogical stories.

The type and nature of genealogical stories change. These stories will invariably focus on genetic distance rather than generations. As we get further away from the present and beyond ten generations ago, the stories will generally shift from individuals and families to lineages representing faceless individuals and groups. The branches in family trees no longer represent individuals but historical points of genetic mutations where we can pinpoint the ‘most common recent ancestor‘.

Sources

Feature Image: An amalgam of stock photographs about genealology from: Alpenwild: Alpine Adventures Perfected, https://www.alpenwild.com/staticpage/genealogy-research-in-germany-switzerland/ ; and from https://stock.adobe.com/

[1] See my Story: Part Three: How Do You Spell Griffis? April 2, 2022. The present story is an expansion and revision of my discussion of how I evaluated different sources of evidence when examining the different spellings of the Griffis(th)(es) surname among descendants of William Griffis, our genealogical “brick wall’ based on traditional sources of genealogical information for the surname.

[2] First sentence of Chapter One, Board for Certification of Genealogists, Genealogy Standards Nashville: Turner Publishing Co., 2021

[3] Founded in 1964 by Fellows of the American Society of Genealogists, the BCG serves as a certifying body for genealogistsThe BCG’s primary mission is to foster public confidence in genealogy as a respected branch of history. It accomplishes this through two main approaches:

• Standards Promotion: The organization promotes and maintains high ethical and technical standards in genealogical research and writing
• Certification: The BCG offers a rigorous certification process for genealogists, granting the title of Certified Genealogist (CG) to those who meet their stringent standards.

The BCG publishes the “Genealogy Standards,” which serves as an official manual and guide for family historians. This publication outlines the standards expected in genealogical research and writing.

Board for Certification of Genealogists, BCG, FamilySearch Wiki, This page was last edited on 4 November 2022, https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Board_for_Certification_of_Genealogists,_BCG

Board for Certification of Genealogists, Genealogy Standards, second edition revised (Nashville: Ancestry.com, 2021)

[4] This quote is often used as a preamble to discussing genealogical methods and research. See for example:

Alice Childs, Genealogy Terminology: Genealogical Proof Standard, May 1, 2019, Alice Childs Blog, https://alicechilds.com/genealogy-terminology-genealogical-proof-standard/

Liz Sonnenberg, Seeking the True Story, May 17, 2023, Modern Memoirs Publishing, https://www.modernmemoirs.com/mmblog/2023/5/seeking-the-true-story

Linda Harms Okazaki, LGBTQ+ genealogy – Be proud of your ancestors, Jun 22, 2023, Nichi Bei News, https://www.nichibei.org/2023/06/finding-your-nikkei-roots-lgbtq-genealogy-be-proud-of-your-ancestors/

[5] Micro-history is a genre of historical research and writing that focuses on small-scale subjects or events to illuminate larger historical issues and trends. Microhistory offers a way to illuminate the textures of everyday life in the past and connect individual experiences to broader historical forces. By zooming in on small-scale subjects, it aims to reveal insights about historical processes that may be obscured at larger scales of analysis.

This approach emerged in the 1970s as a reaction against broad quantitative social history approaches.

For some micohistorians, their focus is on outliers rather than looking for the average individual as found by the application of quantitative research methods. In microhistory the term “normal exception” is used to penetrate the importance of this perspective.

Core Principles of micro-history are:

• Uncover the lived experiences of ordinary people and marginalized groups;
• Focus on small units of study, such as an individual, family, community, or specific event;
• Ask “large questions in small places” by connecting micro-level details to macro-level historical processes.

The methodological approach of microhistory tends to:

• Involve the analysis of primary sources and archival documents;
• Use narrative techniques to tell stories about the past;
• Utilize personal documents ( “ego documents”) like diaries and letters to access historical actors’ perspectives;
• Track clues across multiple sources to discover hidden connections; and
• Employ what has ben called the “evidential paradigm” – using small details to make larger inferences

Microhistory, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 22 March 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microhistory

Sigurdur Gylfi Magnusson, What is Microhistory?, History News Network, https://www.hnn.us/article/what-is-microhistory

Ginzburg, Carlo, et al. “Microhistory: Two or Three Things That I Know about It.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 20, no. 1, 1993, pp. 10–35. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343946

Burke, Peter (1991). “On Microhistory”. In Levi, Giovanni (ed.). New Perspectives on Historical Writing. New Perspectives on Historical Writing. (1992). United States: Pennsylvania State University Press.

[6] Mills, C. Wright, The sociological Imagination, New York: Oxford University press, 1959, https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Sociological_Imagination/UTQ6OkKwszoC

See also:

The Sociological Imagination, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 13 August 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sociological_Imagination

Rose, Arnold M. “Varieties of Sociological Imagination.” American Sociological Review, vol. 34, no. 5, 1969, pp. 623–30. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2092299

Winter, Gibson. “The Sociological Imagination.” The Christian Scholar, vol. 43, no. 1, 1960, pp. 61–64. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41177145

Allen, Danielle. “On the Sociological Imagination.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 30, no. 2, 2004, pp. 340–41. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.1086/421129

Kolb, William L. “Values, Politics, and Sociology.” American Sociological Review, vol. 25, no. 6, 1960, pp. 966–69. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2089989

[7] Elizabeth Shown Mills, Bridging the Historic Divide: Family History and “Academic” History, “History or Genealogy? Why Not Both?” presented at the Indianapolis-based Midwestern Roots Conference, Sponsored jointly by the Indiana Historical Society and the Indiana Genealogy Society, August 2004, Page 2 https://www.historicpathways.com/download/bridghisdivideivide.pdf

See also:

Elizabeth Shown Mills, Academia vs. Genealogy Prospects for Reconciliation,  National Genealogical Society Quartrerly, Volume 71 , Number 2, June 1983, Pages 99 – 106 , https://www.historicpathways.com/download/acadvgenea.pdf

Elizabeth Shown Mills, Genealogy in the “Information Age”: History’s New Frontier?, national Genealogical Society Quarterly 91 (December) 2003, Pages 260-277, https://historicpathways.com/download/genininfoage.pdf

Taylor, Robert & Ralph J. Crandall, Historians and Genealogists: An Emerging Community of Interest, Chapter One in Robert M. Taylor & Ralph J. Crandall, Eds., General and Change: Genealogical Perspectives in Social History, Macon: Mercer University Press, 1986, Pages 3 – 28

Hays, Samuel P., History and Genealogy: Patterns of Change and Prospects for Cooperation, Cahpeter Two in Robert M. Taylor & Ralph J. Crandall, Eds., General and Change: Genealogical Perspectives in Social History, Macon: Mercer University Press, 1986, Pages 29 – 52

[8] For a similar view, see: Lisson, Lisa, Use Social History in Genealogy Research – Telling Your Ancestors’ Stories, Dec 2, 2019, Are you My cousin? Genealogy, https://lisalisson.com/social-history-genealogy/ 

[9] Durie, Bruce, Welsh Genealogy, Stroud, United Kingdom: The History Press, 2013, Page 7

[10] French historian Lucien Febvre first articulated the concept in 1932 as “histoire vue d’en bas et non d’en haut”. E.P. Thompson’s work, particularly “The Making of the English Working Class,” helped establish this approach. The movement gained momentum during the 1960s alongside social movements for civil rights and equality.

This approach emerged as a challenge to prevailing historical traditions, seeking to understand how common people, workers, marginalized groups, and the lower strata of society shaped and were shaped by historical events. This approach examined lives of laborers, families, and communities. It analyzed daily experiences, culture, and social conditions of ordinary people. Its contemporary significance provides a more inclusive and comprehensive view of historical events. It helps recover voices of those traditionally excluded from historical narratives

Manning, Patrick, The case for ‘Bottom-Up’ History, 1 Nov 2022, Patrick Manning Blog, https://patrickmanningworldhistorian.com/blog/culture-knowledge/the-case-for-bottom-up-history/

Boyce, Bruce, History From the Bottom Up 1 Aug 2020, I Take My Hsitory with My Coffee, https://www.itakehistory.com/post/history-from-the-bottom-up

Richard Evans, In Defense of History (London, UK: Granta Books, 1997), 161.

E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London, UK: Victor Gollancz, Ltd, 1965), 194.

Eileen Cheng, Historiography: an Introductory Guide (New York, NY: Bloomsbury, 2012), 136.

[11] Social History, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 15 September 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_history

Social Science History, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 1 January 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Science_History

The following are samples of social history research in this time period:

Walkowitz, Daniel , Worker City, Company Town, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978

Hershberg, T. (1973). The Philadelphia Social History Project: A Methodological History. United States: Stanford University.

Kladstriup, Regan, Philadelphia Social History project,The Encyclopadia of Greater Philadelphia,  https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/essays/philadelphia-social-history-project/

Lardner, James. “History by Numbers: Defending Computers as Contemporary Tool.” The Washington Post, March 9, 1982.

Hershberg, Theodore, et al. “The Philadelphia Social History Project,” Historical Methods Newsletter special issue, v.9, no.2-3 (March-June 1976).

Hershberg, Theodore, ed. Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family, and Group Experience in the Nineteenth Century, Essays Toward an Interdisciplinary History of the City. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981.

Furstenberg, Frank Jr., Theodore Hershberg, and John Modell. “The Origins of the Female-Headed Black Family: The Impact of the Urban Environment,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History, vol. 6, no. 2 (September 1975), 211-33.

Glassberg, Eudice. “Work, Wages and the Cost of Living: Ethnic Differences and the Poverty Line, Philadelphia, 1880.” Pennsylvania History, vol. 46, no. 1 (January 1979), 17-58

Haines, Michael. “Fertility and Marriage in a Nineteenth-Century Industrial City: Philadelphia, 1850-1880,” Journal of Economic History, vol. 40, no. 1 (March 1980), 151-158

Laurie, Bruce, Theodore Hershberg, and George Alter. “Immigrants and Industry: The Philadelphia Experience, 1850-1880,” Journal of Social History, vol. 9, no. 2 (Winter 1975), 219-248.

Laurie, Bruce. Working People of Philadelphia, 1800-1850. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980.

Modell, John, Frank F. Furstenberg Jr., and Theodore Hershberg. “Social Change and Transitions to Adulthood in Historical Perspective,” Journal of Family History, vol. 1, no. 1 (September 1976), 7-32.

Seaman, Jeff, and Gretchen Condran. “Nominal Record Linkage by Machine and Hand: An Investigation of Linkage Techniques Using the Manuscript Census and the Death Register, Philadelphia, 1880,” 1979 Proceedings of the Social Statistics Section of the American Statistical Association, 678-683.

See also:

Clayton, Mary Kupiec, Elliott J. Gorn, Peter W. Williams, Encyclopedia of American social history, 3 Volumes, New York: Scribner, 1993, Volume II:  https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofam0002unse_d6v8/page/n5/mode/2up

Cross, Michael S, updated by Julia Skikavich, March 4, 2015, The Canadian Encyclopedia, https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/social-history

Fairburn, Miles, Social History: problems, strategies, and methods, New York : St. Martin’s Press, 1999, https://archive.org/details/socialhistorypro0000fair_d9v5

Himmelfarb, Gertrude. “The Writing of Social History: Recent Studies of 19th Century England.” Journal of British Studies, vol. 11, no. 1, 1971, pp. 148–70. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/175042 

Staughton Lynd, Doing History From the Bottom Up: On E. P. Thompson, Howard Zinn, and rebuilding the labor movement from below, Haymarket, eBook, 2014

Peter N. Stearns, “Social History and World History: Prospects for Collaboration.” Journal of World History 2007 18(1): 43-52

[12] Some key quantitative approaches included:

• Historical demography using parish registers and censuses to study population trends;
• Economic history combining firm-level or individual data wit statistics to test economic hypotheses;
• Political history analyzing voting statistics and legislative roll calls; and 
• Large digitization projects to create databases of historical records for quantitative analysis.

The use of quantitative methods in leading historical journals declined sharply after the mid-1980s. Many social historians began moving away from economic and social science frameworks.

[13] The field has evolved to recognize that the selection of methodological approaches should be based on pragmatic considerations rather than rigid adherence to a single method. This has led to more innovative and comprehensive research approaches, particularly in studying complex social phenomena.

Methodological Pluralism, encyclopedia.com, https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/methodological-pluralism

For examples of social history studies that I have utilized that analyze macroscopic historical trends with microscopic or local historical data that is similar to genealogical approaches, see the following for a good overview of the various approaches used to understanding German immigration:

Kamphoefner, Walter, D., The Westfalians, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987 

Walter D. Kamphoefner, “Immigrant Epistolary and Epistemology: On the Motivators and Mentality of Nineteenth-Century German Immigrants,” Journal of American Ethnic History 28, no. 3 (Spring 2009): 34 

Rudolph Vecoli, European Americans: From Immigrants to Ethnics, Section I : Immigrants, Ethnics, Americans, Cleveland Ethnic Heritage Studies, Press Books, Cleveland State University 1976. https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/ethnicity/chapter/european-americans-from-immigrants-to-ethnics/

James Boyd in his Introduction to his PhD Dissertation , The Limits to Structural Explanation, provides a good overview of the historical approaches that have been used for explaining German migration to America, see: 

James D. Boyd, An Investigation into the Structural Causes of German-American Mass Migration in the Nineteenth Century, Submitted for the award of PhD, History, Cardiff University 2013, https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/47612/1/2013boydjdphd.pdf

Helbich, Wolfgang. “German Research on German Migration to the United States.” Amerikastudien / American Studies, vol. 54, no. 3, 2009, pp. 383–404. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41158447

Günter Moltmann, “Migrations from Germany to North America: New Perspectives.” Reviews in American History, vol. 14, no. 4, 1986, pp. 580–96. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2702202

Wegge, Simone A. “Chain Migration and Information Networks: Evidence from Nineteenth-Century Hesse-Cassel.” The Journal of Economic History, vol. 58, no. 4, 1998, pp. 957–86. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2566846

Cohn, Raymond L., and Simone A. Wegge. “Overseas Passenger Fares and Emigration from Germany in the Mid-Nineteenth Century.” Social Science History, vol. 41, no. 3, 2017, pp. 403. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/90017919

Wegge, Simone A. To part or not to part: emigration and inheritance institutions in mid-19th century Germany. Explorations in Economic History 36, 1999, pp. 30-55.

Nadel, Stanley, Little Germany: Ethnicity, Religion, and Class in New York City 1845-80, Urbana:University of Illinois Press, 1990,

Félix Krawatzek and Gwendolyn Sasse, Writing home: how German immigrants found their place in the US, February 18, 20016, The Conversation, https://theconversation.com/writing-home-how-german-immigrants-found-their-place-in-the-us-53342

Félix Krawatzek, Gwendolyn Sasse, The simultaneity of feeling German and being American: Analyzing 150 years of private migrant correspondence, Migration Studies, Volume 8, Issue 2, June 2020, Pages 161–188  https://doi.org/10.1093/migration/mny014

Félix Krawatzek and Gwendolyn Sasse, Deciphering Migrants’ Letters, November 28, 2018, comparative Studies in Society and History, https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/cssh/tag/krawatzek/

Walter D. Kamphoefner, Wolfgang Helbich, et al., Editors., News from the Land of Freedom: German Immigrants Write Home (Documents in American Social History) : Cornell University Press, 1991.

[14] Hays, Samuel P., History and Genealogy: Patterns of Change and Prospects for Cooperation, Chapter Two in Robert M. Taylor & Ralph J. Crandall, Eds., General and Change: Genealogical Perspectives in Social History, Macon: Mercer University Press, 1986, Pages 47

[15] Hays, Samuel P., History and Genealogy: Patterns of Change and Prospects for Cooperation, Chapter Two in Robert M. Taylor & Ralph J. Crandall, Eds., General and Change: Genealogical Perspectives in Social History, Macon: Mercer University Press, 1986, Pages 43

[16] Elizabeth Shown Mills, Bridging the Historic Divide: Family History and “Academic” History, “History or Genealogy? Why Not Both?” presented at the Indianapolis-based Midwestern Roots Conference, Sponsored jointly by the Indiana Historical Society and the Indiana Genealogy Society, August 2004, Page 3 https://www.historicpathways.com/download/bridghisdivideivide.pdf

See also:

Lenstra, Noah , ‘Democratizing ‘ Genealogy and Family Heritage Practices: the View from Urbana, Illinois, In Encounters with Popular Pasts: Cultural Heritage and Popular Culture, Mike Robinson and Helaine Silverman, eds., NewYork: Springer 2015, Page 203

De Groot, Jerome, On Genealogy, The Public Historian, Volume 37, Issue 3, August 2015, Page  119, https://online.ucpress.edu/tph/article-abstract/37/3/102/89479/International-Federation-for-Public-History?redirectedFrom=fulltext

Tucker, Susan. 2016. City of Remembering: A History of Genealogy in New Orleans. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2016, Page 165

Creet, Julia, The Genealogical Sublime, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2020, Page 168

Weil, François. 2007. John Farmer and the Making of American Genealogy. New England Quarterly 80. Pages 408–34., Page 181, https://direct.mit.edu/tneq/article-abstract/80/3/408/15801/John-Farmer-and-the-Making-of-American-Genealogy?redirectedFrom=fulltext

Hareven, Tamara, K., The Search for Generational Memoriy: Tribal Rites in Industrial Society. Daedalus, 107, 1978, Pages 137 – 149

Taylor, Robert M. 1982. Summoning the Wandering Tribes: Genealogy and Family Reunions in American History. Journal of Social History 16, Pages 21–35, https://academic.oup.com/jsh/article-abstract/16/2/21/1031592?redirectedFrom=fulltext

Bidlack, Russell E. 1983. Librarians and Genealogical Research. In Ethnic Genealogy: A Research Guide. Edited by Jessie Carney Smith, Westport: Greenwood Press.1983, Page 9

Morgan, Francesca. 2010a. A Noble Pursuit? Bourgeois America’s Uses of Lineage. In The American Bourgeoisie: Distinction and Identity in the Nineteenth Century. Edited by Sven Beckert and Julia Rosenbaum. New York: Palgrave, 2010, Page 144

Carmen J. Finely, Creating a Winning Family History, NGS Special Publication No. 99, National Genealogical Society, Arlington: National Genealogical Society, 2010

[17] Hays, Samuel P., History and Genealogy: Patterns of Change and Prospects for Cooperation, Chapter Two in Robert M. Taylor & Ralph J. Crandall, Eds., General and Change: Genealogical Perspectives in Social History, Macon: Mercer University Press, 1986

[18] Autosomal DNA, This page was last edited on 21 October 2020, International Society of Genetic Genealogy Wiki, https://isogg.org/wiki/Autosomal_DNA

Genetic genealogy, This page was last edited on 27 March 2022,, International Society of Genetic Genealogy Wiki, https://isogg.org/wiki/Genetic_genealogy

Mitochondrial DNA, This page was last edited on 22 May 2018, International Society of Genetic Genealogy Wiki, https://isogg.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA

Mitochondrial DNA tests, This page was last edited on 13 February 2021, https://isogg.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA_tests

[19] Rob Spencer, Y and mtDNA, May 1, 2023, Case Studies in Macro Genealology, Presentation for the New York Genealogical and Biographical Society, Slide Five, July 2021, http://scaledinnovation.com/gg/mnl/mnl3.pdf

[20] Y-STR DNA testing is a specialized form of DNA analysis that exclusively examines short tandem repeats (STRs) found on the male Y chromosome. Y-STR testing can help identify ancestral origins and migration patterns, though with some limitations. The test examines specific patterns on the Y chromosome that are passed down through paternal lineages, creating unique signatures that can trace geographical ancestry.

Y-STRs (Short Tandem Repeats) differ from other Y-SNP markers like SNPs in several key ways. STRs mutate more frequently over time and through generations than SNPs. Changes can occur roughly once every 500 transmissions. Multiple mutations at the same location are common. Y STR analyses are better for looking at recent genealogical connections and useful for determining time frames between common ancestors. They are less effective for deep ancestral research.

Unlike STR DNA, SNP DNA is very stable over many generations. When a mutation does occur, it is carried indefinitely by the male descendants of the individual in whom the SNP was formed – the ‘SNP Progenitor’. This makes SNP DNA testing particularly useful for distinguishing one genetic lineage from another.

Chris Gunter, Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPS), National Human Genome Research Institute, 12 Sep 2022, https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Single-Nucleotide-Polymorphisms

What are single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)?, National Library of Medicine, accessed 10 Jul 2022, https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/genomicresearch/snp/

Single-nucleotide polymorphism, Wikipedia, page accessed 4 Apr 0222,  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism

What are SNP’s, Genetics Generation, Page accessed 15 Jun 2022, https://knowgenetics.org/snps/

Sampson JN, Kidd KK, Kidd JR, Zhao H. Selecting SNPs to identify ancestry. Ann Hum Genet. 2011 Jul;75(4):539-53. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3141729/

National Institute of Justice, “What Is STR Analysis?,” March 2, 2011, nij.ojp.gov: 
https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/what-str-analysis

STR analysis, Wikipedia, page was last edited on 13 June 2022, page accessed, 4 Sep 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STR_analysis

Short Tandem Repeat, International Society of Genetic Genealology Wiki, page was last edited on 31 January 2017,page accessed 10 Oct 2022, https://isogg.org/wiki/Short_tandem_repeat

Wei W, Ayub Q, Xue Y, Tyler-Smith C. A comparison of Y-chromosomal lineage dating using either resequencing or Y-SNP plus Y-STR genotyping. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2013 Dec;7(6):568-572. doi: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2013.03.014. Epub 2013 Jun 13. PMID: 23768990; PMCID: PMC3820021. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3820021/

Y-STR, Wikipedia, This page was last edited on 15 February 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-STR

A Comparison of Our Y-DNA Tests, FamilyTreeDNA Help Center, https://help.familytreedna.com/hc/en-us/articles/5579319716111-A-Comparison-of-Our-Y-DNA-Tests

[21] Regarding the use of the terms family historian versus genealogist, here are a few examples of the discourse on whether they are distinct or not.

“(T)he two fields can have different priorities. A genealogist, for example, might simply want to know the names and birthplaces of their ancestors. But a family historian would be equally as interested in reconstructing what those ancestors’ lives were like, and learning about other members of their nuclear families.”

Andrew Koch, Genealogy vs. Family History | Definitions and Examples of Each, Family Tree Magazine, April 2023, https://familytreemagazine.com/general-genealogy/what-is-genealogy-family-history/

“Today, the two terms are used interchangeably most of the time. There is a subtle distinction and many would enjoy debating the nuances in the language. Genealogy is often used to describe a line of descent, traced continuously from an ancestor, often also called a lineage. There is some expectation that a genealogy is a formal or scholarly study of ancestral family lines and that documentary evidence of each generational bloodline connection can be proven with evidence and records. Family history also means the study of a family tree and generational connections, but some feel is has a bit more connotation of a biographical study of a family and may include the heritage and traditions a family passed on. Basically both words mean the study of families, finding their stories, and tracing their lineage and history. You will see we interchange the two terms and you can feel free to do so also.”

Are Genealogy and Family History different?, National Genealogical Society, https://www.ngsgenealogy.org/family-history/, https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Genealogy

“Genealogical or family history research is the process of searching records to find information about your relatives and using those records to link individuals across several generations.”

Genealogy, Family Search Wik, This page was last edited on 11 May 2023, https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Genealogy

“What’s the difference between a genealogist and a family historian? People sometimes use those two concepts as though they were interchangeable, and this adds to the confusion. There are differences between a genealogist and a family historian …  For many people, there is some overlap between the tasks that are typically done by a genealogist and the tasks done by a family historian. A person might start by using vital records to fill in their family tree, and then later, start looking for personal stories about those ancestors.”

The Differences between a Genealogist and a Family Historian, FamilyTree,    Page accessed Nov 11, 2023 , www.familytree.com/blog/the-differences-between-a-genealogist-and-a-family-historian/

James Tanner, Am I a genealogist or a family historian?, Feb 18, 2014, Genealogy’s Star, Blog, https://genealogysstar.blogspot.com/2014/02/am-i-genealogist-or-family-historian.html

Paul Chiddicks, Are you a Genealogist or Family Historian?, The Chiddicks family Tree,, Blog, July 17, 2021, https://chiddicksfamilytree.com/2021/07/17/are-you-a-genealogist-or-family-historian/

“Genealogy is defined as the study of a person’s ancestry or lineage.  Family history is defined as an extension of genealogy in which the life and times of the people concerned are investigated.  So I guess the real difference is that family historians dig a little deeper into genealogy, or at least that’s how I define it. But ultimately the terminology really doesn’t matter at least to me anyway.  Because through this journey I have been a genealogist, a family historian, an investigator, a reporter, an analyst, a writer, and a natural observer.  I have had to wear many hats to get as far as I have in my research.”

Genealogist or Family Historian… Do You Think There is  a Difference???, Journey Through the Generations, Nov 5 2018, https://journeythroughthegenerations.com/2018/11/05/genealogist-or-family-historian-do-you-think-there-is-a-difference/

“To me, a genealogist and a family historian are the same. Without data there can be no narrative. Without the narrative, a genealogy does not meet the industry standards. Context is essential when we research our family history. Some genealogists, sadly even professionals, do not care about context and stories. “

“Not all agree that these terms have different definitions. Lene Dræby Kottal, a professional researcher who holds the Certified Genealogist credential and specializes in Danish ancestry, argues that the two terms amount to a distinction without a difference.”

Lene Kottal, From Data to Narrative: Genealogist versus Family Historian, Genealogist Kottal Blog, Page accessed October 5, 2023,  https://www.genealogistkottal.com/danish-genealogy-blog/from-data-to-narrative-genealogist-versus-family-historian/